Clement+Tahershamsi

=Does Diet Cola freeze Faster than Normal Cola?=

Well I just finished visiting my favorite canteen in Douglas (the only one in Douglas at that) with buddy Colin there and I heard something that sparked my curiosity. Corey (the canteen guy) told us that it was better not to buy the diet Pepsi out of the machine outside (not that we were planning to considering all the funky stuff in it), he said it was frozen solid when none of the other pops, or even the bottled water had. Beguiled by this strange happenstance I made the hypothesis that it was the lack of sugar that lead to this phenomenon but it failed to explain the water, which I figured that some additive in the water either made it freeze slower, or a lack of additives meant that melted faster during the day (as it had assuredly frozen during the night before) After some research online here is what I found.

When First searching the particular question of the diet pops vs. the non-diet pops I found that the common explanation was that the more solute that is in the solvent then the temperature at which it freezes is lowered this is called freezing point depression. It also went on to say that because the artificial sweetener that was used in diet pops was stronger than normal sugar and thus required a lower concentration in order to create the same taste, thus the less solute the easier it freezes. I then decided to check some reputable sites to check this theory.

I found that although sugar does lower the freezing point of a solvent (such as water) it is not by much, not nearly as much as salt, because salt is an electrolyte and sugar is not. I could not, however find anything conducive to aspartame and freezing point, I can only speculate that it is indeed lower than conventional sugar. Interestingly enough I found that Aspartame is only speculated to be safe and that certain test labs have found that it can result in headaches and seizures in humans, to brain tumors in rats, nothing completely conclusive has been found although many scientists doubt its safety.

I never did find out why the water wouldn't freeze or melted faster.

If anyone has any please help me out.

and check out this site it is a really cool tool. []

Senese, F. (2010, February 15). //Why does Salt melt ice?//. Retrieved from http://antoine.frostburg.edu/chem/senese/101/solutions/faq/why-salt-melts-ice.shtml

Zaman, A. (2004, April 02). //The Effect of electrolyte and non-electrolyte solutes on the freezing point depression of water//. Retrieved from []

media type="youtube" key="tG8v5_ZnX8k" height="344" width="425"This is a cool way to spend a weekend actually, firing a spud gun, but remember kids, in Canada, our great nation, they are illegal so don't go making or firing them! Albeit, if anyone would like to know the exact tools and materials necessary for such an endeavor please feel free to contact me through the discussion page. Since this is such a great video I don't even have to do much explaining, although he does stutter a lot so it might be a bit hard to understand at first.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tG8v5_ZnX8k

=Post #3= Work hardening metals.

The gist of it is this. When you have a metal or an alloy, say a steel bar, strait out of the factory. Chances are it will have a combination of ductility, malleability and hardness (called yield strength). Now lets say that you wanted to make it stronger so that it wouldn't bend in half when you used it to carry buckets of water up from the river to your masters house. Fearing his wrath if such a thing were to occur, you steal ontp his private computer in the middle of the night and begin to search for answers. After cycling through all of Windows 7 cool new gadgets, you conveniently get around to doing actual research, you find many interesting and useful things, including the fact that metals can be hardened without heating or chemicals of any kind, this is called cold hardening. Further research into the world wide web reveals that hardening of metals comes about by deformation, of which there are two types, elastic deformation and plastic deformation. They differ one from another in the sense that, elastic deformation is when the stress on the metal, such as our steel bar, causes the magnetic bonds between ions to "stretch" in a sense, so that once the stress is removed, the ions, through magnetic attraction, will return to the normal distances from each other, thus restoring the metal to its original shape, we see the greatest capacity for this in springs, when you stretch it, even really far, it will still return to its original shape (unless you exceed its elastic limit wherefore it undergoes a plastic deformation) in a plastic deformation the magnetic bonds between ions are broken, which will cause a permanent change in shape. This can be undone by heating the metal to a certain temperature, depending on the metal, where enough energy is created to reform those ionic bonds, this is called annealing. Now cold hardening is the act of putting a piece of metal (our steel bar) through a relatively small plastic deformation where certain ionic bonds will be broken. this will create what I like to think of as "folds" on the surface of the metal which is essentially a fluctuation in the stress field of the metal called a "dislocation" these folds steadily increase until they begin to be packed together and start interacting with one another, essentially making it harder for the metal to bend the higher the concentration of folds are. This is effectively an increase in yield strength (hardness) and a decrease in ductility. You joyously set out the next day to the river to gather water for your master and while there, jam the bar of steel between two huge boulders and work it back and forth until it becomes increasingly difficult to bend, you pull it out of the crevasse to find that you now have a perfectly tough steel bar to carry water on, now all you have to do is find a better job. This is the reason planes have to be retired after a certain amount of time, their exteriors become work hardened from the stress of flying and eventually become brittle (like crystal) and can cause catastrophic failure.

Post #4 Butanol

Butanol is possibly the next step in Bio-fuel technology! Let me explain why. -It is a four carbon alcohol that means that it has twice the amount of carbon than ethanol which equates to a 25% increase in harvest-able energy. - It is produced through fermentation from corn, grass, leaves, agricultural waste and other biomass, which means that it is natural - Butanol is safer to handle than ethanol or gasoline because it evaporates at a slower rate. - It can be blended with fossil fuels to make cleaner fuel, but can be used alone. - doesn't produce SOX, NOX or carbon monoxide when used in an internal combustion engine, all of which are harmfull to the environement. - far less corrosive than other fuels, which makes for easier and safer distribution through existing pipelines. - has more hydrogen which makes for a better energy output than ethanol, also making it safer.

Butanol production practically ceased during the 1950s because of the dirt cheap price to make gasoline and the inefficiency of producing butanol, but in the past years, there has been technology developed that has let butanol far surpasse the efficiency of ethanol production, and with the diminishment of fossil fuels it will soon pass that too.

exciting.

Ramey, David. (2004, November). //Butanol advances in biofuel//. Retrieved from http://www.lightparty.com/Energy/Butanol.html

media type="youtube" key="1sldBwpvGFg" height="385" width="640" Basically there is this huge expensive tube (5 Billion euro budget + repairs) and is essentially used to smash particles together so physicists can try and predict how the universe was created. Watch the video, dry topic, but interesting.
 * Post # 5**
 * Atomic smashing!**

Post #6 Citrus flamethrower!

Sounds exciting, but it really isn't all that exciting. Basically if you have a small flame and some citrus fruit peel you can break a strip of peel over the flame which will squirt out a tad of Limonene which turns into vapor just fast enough to be ignitable by the flame. Limonene is being looked at as a possible source of bio-fuel, but as of yet does not look very promising. media type="youtube" key="T63lWVtE05s" height="385" width="480"

Helminstine, A.M. (2010). //Citrus flames project make a mini-flamethrower with citrus oil//. Retrieved from http://chemistry.about.com/od/funfireprojects/a/citrusfire.html

Post # 7 Epinephrine

Cells in the adrenal medulla synthesis and secrete epinephrine (commonly called Adrenaline) and norepinephrine the are known as catecholamines and the ratio between the two differs depending on species being abou t 80% epinephrine in humans, 60% in cats and 30% in chickens. They are released into the blood stream and bind adrenergic receptors to target cells and stimulate them as would direct sympathetic nerve stimuli. Basically it makes you pumped. These catecholamines are made from the amino acid tyrosine which is taken by chromaffin cells in the medulla and is converted in the following way.  Norepinephine and epinephrine are stored in electron-dense granules which also contain ATP and several neuropeptides These hormones are released when we experience different stresses such as exercise, trauma etc... When these hormones are released and start adding these adrenergic receptors to certain cells, it causes a complex physiological reaction, which depends on the type of receptor and the type of catecholamine landing on it.


 * ~ Receptor ||~ Effectively Binds ||~ Effect of Ligand Binding ||
 * ~ Alpha1 || Epinephrine, Norepinphrine || Increased free calcium ||
 * ~ Alpha2 || Epinephrine, Norepinphrine || Decreased cyclic AMP ||
 * ~ Beta1 || Epinephrine, Norepinphrine || Increased cyclic AMP ||
 * ~ Beta2 || Epinephrine || Increased cyclic AMP ||

In general the catecholamines simply stimulate the cells as your nerves do, but for a much more prolonged time period (nerve stimuli lasts usually no more than a split second i believe) this causes quite a variety of effects, even to cells not directly stimulated, this essentially causes the following to your entire body.


 * //Increased rate and force of contraction of the heart muscle:// this is predominantly an effect of epinephrine acting through beta receptors.
 * //Constriction of blood vessels:// norepinephrine, in particular, causes widespread vasoconstriction, resulting in increased resistance and hence arterial blood pressure.
 * //Dilation of bronchioles:// assists in pulmonary ventilation.
 * //Stimulation of lipolysis in fat cells:// this provides fatty acids for energy production in many tissues and aids in conservation of dwindling reserves of blood glucose.
 * //Increased metabolic rate:// oxygen consumption and heat production increase throughout the body in response to epinephrine. Medullary hormones also promote breakdown of glycogen in skeletal muscle to provide glucose for energy production.
 * //Dilation of the pupils:// particularly important in situations where you are surrounded by velociraptors under conditions of low ambient light.
 * //Inhibition of certain "non-essential" processes:// an example is inhibition of gastrointestinal secretion and motor activity.

Bowen, R. (1998, May 27). //Adrenal medullary hormones//. Retrieved from http://www.vivo.colostate.edu/hbooks/pathphys/endocrine/adrenal/medhormones.html

=Jet fuel; Post # 8=

media type="youtube" key="Dufbz176gnk" height="385" width="480" Now this is the future! Sea water into fuel, why not? Although I doubt that it is ever going to happen. Something to do with harnessing hydrogen.

=Post # 9 Chlorofluorocarbon = This chemical was a commonly used solvent and used in aerosol cans, it was banned by the Montreal Protocol because it led to ozone depletion. It is commonly called freon gas. Here is some info on it.

"As in simpler [|alkanes], carbon in the CFCs and the HCFCs is [|tetrahedral]. Since the fluorine and chlorine atoms differ greatly in size from hydrogen and from each other, the methane derived CFCs deviate from perfect tetrahedral symmetry.[|[1]] The physical properties of the CFCs and HCFCs are tunable by changes in the number and identity of the halogen atoms. In general they are volatile, but less so than parent alkane. The decreased volatility is attributed to the molecular polarity induced by the halides and the polarizability of halides, which induces intermolecular interactions. Thus, methane boils at -161 °C whereas the fluoromethanes boil between -51.7 (CF2H2) and -128 °C (CF4). The CFCs have still higher boiling points because the chloride is even more polarizable than fluoride. Because of their polarity, the CFCs are useful solvents. The CFCs are far less flammable than methane, in part because they contain fewer C-H bonds and in part because, in the case of the chlorides and bromides, the released halides quench the free radicals that sustain flames. The densities of CFCs are invariably higher than the corresponding alkanes. In general the density of these compounds correlates with the number of chlorides. CFCs and HCFCs are usually produced by halogen exchange starting from chlorinated methanes and ethanes. Illustrative is the synthesis of chlorodifluoromethane from [|chloroform]: HCCl3 + 2 HF → HCF2Cl + 2 HCl The brominated derivatives are generated by free-radical reactions of the chlorofluorocarbons, replacing C-H bonds with C-Br bonds. The production of the [|anesthetic] [|2-bromo-2-chloro-1,1,1-trifluoroethane] ("halothane") is illustrative: CF3CH2Cl + Br2 → CF3CHBrCl + HBr

[[|edit]] Reactions
The most important reaction of the CFCs is the [|photo-induced scission] of a C-Cl bond: CCl3F → CCl2F**.** + Cl**.** The chlorine atom, written often as Cl**.**, behaves very differently from the chlorine molecule (Cl2). The radical Cl**.** is long-lived in the upper atmosphere, where it catalyzes the conversion of ozone into O2. Ozone absorbs UV-radiation better than does O2, so its depletion allows more of this high energy radiation to reach the Earth's surface. [|Bromine] atoms are even more efficient catalysts, hence brominated CFCs are also regulated."

Wikipedia, Initials. (n.d.). //Chlorofluorocarbon//. Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlorofluorocarbon

media type="youtube" key="1xfJHukUQKE" height="385" width="480"

media type="youtube" key="0cvidKI0Szs" height="385" width="480"

=Post # 10 Chloroform=

Chloroform is used in many ways, including: Its most known function is human anesthetic. It is a nerve depressant and can cause the following:
 * Used in manufacture of fluorocarbons (especially chlorodifluoromethane) for refrigerants and aerosol propellants; used in fire extinguishers to lower the freezing temperature of carbon tetrachloride; used in manufacture of fluorocarbon resins, tribromomethane, plastics, and thermally stable polymers; used in the manufacture of artificial silk, floor polishes, dyes, and pesticides
 * Used as an extractant solvent in manufacture of rubber, essential oils, sterols and alkaloids, guttapercha, resins, and in the recovery of fat from waste products
 * Used in chemical analysis and assays; and in photographic processing
 * Used as a general solvent of lacquers plastics, dyes, fats, greases, gums, oils, adhesives, and waxes, and in the rubber cleaning and dry cleaning industries
 * Prior use as an anesthetic has been discontinued and uses in human drugs and cosmetics are now limited to use as a process solvent for final products that contain only residual amounts of chloroform
 * Used as a fumigant for soil, a mildewicide for tobacco seedlings, a grain fumigant for various stored dry grains, and as an insecticide

Acute exposure: Inhalation of chloroform causes signs and symptoms of central nervous system depression. In the initial stages, there is a feeling of warmth of the face and body, then irritation of the mucous membranes, eyes, and skin, followed by excitation, loss of reflexes, sensation, and consciousness. The pupils dilate and have a reduced reaction to light. Prolonged inhalation causes paralysis, cardiac and respiratory failure, and death [Sax and Lewis 1989; Genium 1992]. Other symptoms may include digestive upset, mental dullness, and dizziness [Sittig 1991]. Chloroform vapors may irritate the eyes and skin. Chloroform liquid causes burning of the eye and transient corneal injury. Skin exposure results in burning and redness [NLM 1995]. Exposure of pregnant women to chloroform may result in fetal death or malformation based on animals studies [Clayton and Clayton 1982]. 2. Chronic exposure: Chronic exposure to chloroform causes neurological and gastrointestinal signs and symptoms that resemble those of chronic alcoholism [Parmeggiani 1983]. These may include depression, liver enlargement, and gastrointestinal disorders [Sittig 1991]. Chronic skin exposure to chloroform may leave the skin red, dry, and cracking [Genium 1992].

oral LD50 in mature rats was from 1336 to 1188 mg'kg. Dermal LD50 in mature rabbits is over 20g/kg. Exposure to chloroform caused widespread liver cancer in male rats and rabbits and thyroid tumors in females. The effect of chloroform on the system is much more acute in the presence of ethanol, therefore alcoholics are more prone to chloroform induced disease.


 * United states departement of labor, OSHA. (n.d.). //Chloroform information//. Retrieved from http://www.osha.gov/SLTC/healthguidelines/chloroform/recognition.html ||

media type="youtube" key="Wh_7fjHV_BY" height="385" width="480"